American Imperialism in the 1890s

Motivations and Criticisms of US Expansionism by War and Annexation

Jan 10, 2009

Although the US acquired lands and trading rights in various foreign lands before the 1890s, the final decade of the century ushered in a strong imperialist movement.

American imperialism, beginning prominently in the 1890s, had a number of motives. As John Hobson noted regarding British imperialism, “…the dominant directive motive was the demand for markets for profitable investment…” Such views were supported by American imperialists as well. There was also the element of inevitable expansion, the “frontier mentality” and the need to secure world standing in order to remain competitive. Finally, there was a religious motivation, the providential charge to bring Christian civilization to foreign cultures.

American Imperialism and Commercial Considerations

Albert Beveridge of Indiana was a leading advocate of American imperialism. In his 1898 March of the Flag speech he presents a case for overseas expansion. Americans were producing more than they could use and foreign markets would increase national prosperity. Acting on Alfred Thayer Mahan’s book, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, American imperialists felt the need to protect expanding mercantile trade through a strong two-ocean navy, coaling stations in the Caribbean and the Pacific, and a canal.

The Spanish American War was concluded in December 1898, giving the United States several possessions previously owned by Spain. Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines were the chief prizes of the war. Hawaii had been annexed in July of that year, while public attention was focused on military operations in Cuba. Hawaii had been dominated by American interests long before the Spanish American War and was not part of Spain's empire.

Cuba’s natural resources were well known and American companies already had enterprises at work. Hawaii provided one of the best Pacific ports (along with Pago Pago in Samoa, already under US control in partnership with Imperial Germany) and made access to the China trade more efficient. By 1899, Secretary of State John Hay pressured European powers with the Open Door Notes to modify trade limitations in China that had effectively blocked US participation.

Moral and Civilizing Motives of Imperialism

As a “Christian” nation that saw itself as “God’s chosen,” many Americans viewed imperialism as a way of spreading the Christian Gospel to so-called “heathen nations.” This motive was a part of President William McKinley’s decision to keep the Philippines. The United States had a moral duty to uplift peoples in lands considered uncivilized. Kumar Goshal, writing of similar British motivations regarding India, states that, “the overwhelming majority…lived in…unbelievable filth and squalor…ill-housed, ill-clothed, and undernourished…”

Rudyard Kipling, the literary apostle of imperialism, expressed similar views in his poem the White Man’s Burden in which he classifies colonial peoples as “half devil, half child.” Such views gelled perfectly with both American and British missionary goals. The great missionary movement that saw the establishment of countless missionary boards and organizations coincided with national imperialistic movements, which may be why critics have difficulty separating the two movements.

Criticism of Imperialism

In America, prominent business, government, and labor leaders opposed imperialism, most notably the occupation of the Philippines which erupted into a bloody war in 1899. Labor leaders like Samuel Gompers believed that cheap foreign labor might become a detriment to American workers. Carl Schurz, a founding member of the Republican Party, decried imperialism as contrary to the principles of Democracy and American freedom. Similarly, Mark Twain wrote, “I am opposed to the eagle putting its talons on any other land.”

Opponents of imperialism formed the Anti-Imperialist League which condemned American action in the Philippines and denounced “the slaughter of the Filipinos as a needless horror.” Imperialism was defined as the “pursuit of un-American ends.” American imperialism would be a dominant issue in the reelection campaign of William McKinley against William Jennings Bryan, a pacifist opposing imperialism.

Dealing with Imperialism

Although the 1900 Foraker Act established a civil government in Puerto Rico, the 1901 Platt Amendment, inserted into the Cuban constitution, gave the US the right to intervene in Cuba. The Philippines would not receive independence until after World War II. Imperialism assisted in establishing America as an emerging global partner.

Sources:

Albert Beveridge, “The March of the Flag,” The Meaning of the Times (Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1908)

The copyright of the article American Imperialism in the 1890s in Modern US History is owned by Michael Streich. Permission to republish American Imperialism in the 1890s in print or online must be granted by the author in writing.